1.5Attracting.pdf

TEACHING TECHNIQUES

Attracting Adult Learners

Much time has been devoted to the study of adult education,

particularly to creating a profile of adult learners. This article examines

who participates in adult education, why they participate, how adults

learn and what barriers to participation they encounter.

Who Participates?

Adults who take part in educational programs tend to be Cauca-

sian, college-educated and between the ages of 17 and 54. It’s interest-

ing to note that, as Cross 1 states, learning is “addictive.” That is, the

more education an individual has, the more likely he or she is to pursue

adult education. For example, a high school graduate is about twice as

likely to participate as an individual with less than 12 years of school-

ing, and those who have attended college are almost twice as likely to

participate as those who have only a high school diploma.

And it isn’t just that better educated people have more time and

money to pursue continuing education. Riessman, cited by Cross, 1

reports that poorly educated people exhibit virtually no interest in gain-

ing knowledge for its own sake, a phenomenon Riessman calls “prag-

matic anti-intellectualism.” Learning for personal growth and develop-

ment is shunned in favor of utility and practicality in education. Differ-

ences in participation rates between men and women are negligible. 2

Rates for participation in adult education may depend on how

the term “adult education” is defined. Tough, 3 who defined it as “sus-

tained, highly deliberate efforts to learn knowledge or a skill,” found

that roughly 98% of adults could be considered participants in adult

education. The U.S. National Center for Education Statistics defined

adult education as consisting of people 17 years of age and older who

are “involved in part-time organized educational activities such as

college courses, employee training, continuing education and private

instruction.” Using this definition, the Census Bureau reported a par-

ticipation rate in 1984 of 26%. 4 Other estimates of participation range

INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY

from one in three to one in five adults. 1 These variations result in part

from differing methods of data collection and inconsistent definitions of

what component of the population is considered “adult.”

Reasons for Participation

In addition to who participates in adult education, it’s important

to appreciate why adults participate. Using a series of interviews with

learners he described as “conspicuously engaged” in continued learn-

ing, Houle, cited by Cross, 1 identified three types of adult learners:

• “Goal oriented” learners participate in order to be able to do

something better or to reach specific objectives. For these learners,

activities are not restricted to one particular approach, but are likely

to involve synthesis of several methods (reading, traveling, discussion,

formal classroom study) to attain objectives.

• “Activity oriented” learners take part in adult education for rea-

sons not related to learning a subject or improving a skill. These learn-

ers are interested mainly in the social aspect of the learning environ-

ment, such as making new friends, escaping boredom or carrying on a

family tradition. Houle reports that most of the people in this category

did little or no reading.

• “Learning oriented” learners pursue learning for its own sake.

They are characterized by a seemingly insatiable curiosity. Houle

described them as avid readers who are engaged in lifelong learning.

To u g h 5 used interviews to study why people undertook learn-

ing projects, particularly those that were self-directed. He included

people who pursued knowledge, skills or information but excluded

those whose reason for learning was motivated primarily by the desire

of gaining academic credit. Because he did not examine efforts to

learn things that were not specific and concrete, Tough’s study ignored

Houle’s activity oriented group of learners. Nevertheless, Tough’s

research uncovered several important points:

• Learners reported, on the average, between five and six reasons

as being “very important” or “fairly important” for beginning a learning

project.

TEACHING TECHNIQUES

• Adults seem to approach learning with the purpose of using or

applying the knowledge.

• Three learning patterns among adults are evident:

1. Some learners begin by recognizing that they want to do some-

thing better. Using this as a starting point, they search for activities that

will help them gain the requisite knowledge or skills.

2. Other learners begin with a basic curiosity about issues that

are of particular importance in their lives.

3. A third group of learners begin by realizing they have a signifi-

cant amount of spare time. They decide to use this time for learning.

• Most people participating in adult education enjoy learning,

and this enjoyment is an important ingredient in the continuation of

learning. Typically, learners report receiving enjoyment from having

learned successfully, from practicing skills they have learned and even

just from receiving the content.

Studies by Morstain and Smart, also cited by Cross, 1 tend to

validate Houle’s typology with one major difference: Whereas Houle

assumed that learners retain characteristic motivations for the remain-

der of their lives, Morstain and Smart recognized that individuals have

several reasons for beginning a learning project, and that those reasons

may change over time. In this respect, Morstain and Small support

Tough’s findings that people typically report several reasons for begin-

ning a learning project.

Cross 1 summarized the findings of 30 state and national studies

about motivations for learning and found:

• Approximately one out of three learners reports that personal

satisfaction is the main reason for learning, and half of all learners

report personal satisfaction as one of the reasons for learning.

• Between 10% and 39% of learners say they seek knowledge for

its own sake. These learners typically are well educated.

• Approximately one out of three adults indicates “escape from

routine” is an important reason for learning.

• Nearly two out of three adults indicate a preference for recogni-

tion, such as a certificate or diploma, for their learning activities.

INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY

How Do Adults Learn?

Although several learning theories — ranging from behavior-

ism to cognitivism to humanism — have been proposed, none can be

applied across the board to all learners in all situations. Nevertheless,

some commonalities emerge.

Davenport and Davenport 6 recommend a combination of peda-

gogical (teacher-directed) and andragogical (learner-directed) methods

in adult education because this “middle-of-the-road” approach meets

the needs of a larger segment of the target audience. This sentiment is

echoed by Geber 7 when she refers to using “an artful balance of andra-

gogical and pedagogical instructional methods” so the instructor “hits

the hot buttons of all learners” at least some of the time.

When are pedagogical methods most appropriate for adults?

Feuer and Geber 8 cite Malcolm Knowles as identifying technical mat-

erial and foundational (introductory) information as likely candidates

for the pedagogical domain. Cross 1 notes that pedagogical techniques

are preferred by those who have progressed the furthest in formal

education. This is not surprising given the fact that the majority of

organized education is based on pedagogical principles, and those with

more education have more experience with and feel the most comfort-

able in well-structured classes and lectures.

Of course, not all learning takes place in structured classes.

Zemke and Zemke 9 report that adults prefer self-directed learning “7

to 1” over classroom-based group learning. Books, tapes and qualified

peer-tutors often are cited as useful adjuncts for self-study. Of addi-

tional assistance to those involved in self-directed study are lectures

and short seminars, because they offer opportunities for learners to talk

to experts face-to-face.

Barriers to Learning

Barriers to engaging in adult education can be classified into

three groups: situational, institutional and dispositional. In a study by

Carp et al, cited by Cross, 1 major reasons listed as situational barriers

included lack of time, conflicting home and job responsibilities and lack

TEACHING TECHNIQUES

of child care. Institutional barriers mentioned were inconvenient pro-

gram schedules, lack of adequate information about programs offered

and limited course offerings. The major dispositional barrier was the

potential student’s lack of confidence in his or her ability to learn.

The issues of who participates, why they participate, how adults

learn and what barriers they face constitute the heart of planning for

continuing education programs. A solid understanding of these issues

provides the basis for producing programs that meet learners’ needs.

References

1. Cross KP. Adults as Learners. San Francisco, Calif: Josey-Bass

Publisher; 1982.

2. Darkenwald GG, Merriam SB. Adult Education: Foundations of

Practice. New York, NY: Harper & Row; 1982:120-121.

3. Tough A. The Adult’s Learning Projects: A Fresh Approach to

Theory and Practice in Adult Learning. Research in Education Series

No. 1. Ontario Institute for Studies in Education; 1971.

4. Statistical Abstract of the United States. 110th ed. Washington, DC:

Bureau of the Census; 1990:165.

5. Tough A. Why Adults Learn. Monographs in Adult Education

No. 3. Department of Adult Education, Ontario Institute for Studies

in Education; 1968.

6. Davenport J, Davenport JH. Andragogical-pedagogical orientations

of adult learners: research results and practice recommendations.

Lifelong Learning. 1985;9(1):6-9.

7. Geber B. The problem with andragogy. Training. December 1988:3.

8. Feuer D, Geber B. Uh-oh … second thoughts about adult learning

theory. Training. December 1988:31-39.

9. Zemke R, Zemke S. 30 things we know for sure about adult learn-

ing. Training/HRD. June 1981:45-52.

By Stephen F. Hulse, M.Ed., R.T.(R)

Originally published in Vol. 62, No. 4

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