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ANCIENT EGYPTIAN
A
linguistic introduction
ANTONIOLOPRIENO
Department ofwar Emtern Languages and Cultures
University of Califarnia, Los Angeh
CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
(:ON
TENTS
-
..
Published by the Press Syndicate ofrhe University ofcambridge
The Pirr Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2
I
RP
40West 20th Street, NewYork, NY 10011-421 1, USA
10Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne
3
166, Australia
Prrfacr
Major chronoiopcal divisions of E~ptianhistoty
pap
xi
xiv
0
Cambridge Universiry Press 1995
1 The language of Ancient Egypt
I.1 The gcnctic framc
1.2 History of thc Egyptian language
1.3 A brief look at Egyptologicd linguistics
Furtbcr rcdding
First published 1995
A
catalogue
rccord$r this book is availablcfiom the British Library
Library of Congress catalopinginpublication data
2
Egyptian graphcmiu
2.1 Introduction
2.2
The basic principlcs of hieroglyphic writing
2.3 Connotational devices in rhc hieroglyphic system
2.4 Thc historical development of Egyptian writing
2.5 The end of the system and its rediscovery
Furthcr reading
Loprieno, Antonio.
Ancient Egyptian: a linguistic introduction
I
Antonio Loprieno
p. cm.
lncludes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0 521 44384 9 (hardback)
lSBN 0 521 44849 2 (~a~erback)
1. Egyptian language.
I.
Title.
PJI 111.L66 1996
493'. 1
-
dc20
3 Egyptian phonology
3.1 lnrroduction
3.2 Heuristic criteria
3.3 The prehistory of Egyptian phonology
3.4 The phonological system of earlier Egyptian
3.4.1 Consonants
3.4.2 Vowclr
3.4.3 Syllabic
structures
ISBN 0 521 44384 9 hardback
ISBN 0 521 44849 2 paperback
Transferred to digital printing 2004
3.5
The phonological system of later Egyprian
3.5.1
Consonants
3.5.2 Vowrls
3.5.3 Syllabic structurrs
1
'l'he
phonological system
oC
(:oprlL
3.6.
l
C..onronantr
5.62
Vou,r/~
5.6
Existential scntcnccs and rcmporal-modal fcaturcs
122
5.7
Ncgativc patrcrns
125
5.8
Nominal scntcnccs In latcr L;.gypt~an
131
4
Elements of historical morphology
4.1 lntroducrion
4.2 Root, stcm, word
4.3 Nominal morphology
4.3.1 Grnrral featurer
4.3.2 Compound nounr
4.3.3 Thefeminine
4.3.4 Plural and dual
4.3.5 Feminine andplural in later E~ptian
4.4 Pronouns
4.4.1 Personal pronouns
44.2 Personal pronouns in later Egptian
4.4.3
Deictic, intrrrogative, and relative pronouns
4.5 Numerals
4.6 The verb
4.6.1 Introduction
4.62
General fratures of verbal morpholo~
4.63
Verbal morphology in earlier Egyptian
4.64 Non-jinite vcrbal$nns
4.65
Negative verbal$nns
4.6 6
Verbal morphology in later Egyptian
4.7 Prepositions, conjunctions, particles
Further reading
5.9
Old
and new clcft scntcnccs
133
5.10
Interrogative, possessive, and existential pattcrns
137
140
5.1 1 Negation in latcr Egyptian
Further reading
142
6
Adverbial
and
pseudoverbal
syntax
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Advcrbial and pscudovcrbal pattcrns
6.3 Advcrbial conversions
6.3.1 Adverbial clauses
63.2 Adverbial phrases
6.3.3
Converted us. unconverted relative claust~
6.4 Initial vs. non-initid clauses
64.1 Generalfiatures
64.2 The proclitic particles
jw
and mk
6.5
Negation in advcrbial and pseudoverbal patterns
6.5.1
Negation in adverbial and pseudoverbal srntences
6
5.2 Negation ofadvrrbialphrases
6.6
Advcrbial sentences in later Egyptian
6.61
The Present I and
its
conversions
6.62
Thefate of pseudoverbal patterm
6.6.3 Main vs. subordinate clauses
6.7 Later Egyptian negative patterns
Furthrr reading
5 Nominal syntax
5.1
Introduction
7 Verbal syntax
7.1 Introduction
7.2
The indcpendcnt vcrbal scntcncc
7.3 Initial vs. non-initial main clauscs
7.4 Verbal clauscs embedded as advcrbial ~hrascs
7.5 The verbal scntcncc with topicalizcd
7.5.1 Grnrral charactrri1tir.~
7
5.2 7bpir.ulizrd v1. ~dr~erbralizrd
5.2
Bipartite vs. tripartite pattcrns
5.2.1
Ckzssr&ing and idmtt&ing patterns
5.2.2 Sprcr&ing patterns
5.3
Entire clauses as predicate ofpw
:
"thctic" statcmcnts
5.4
Sentences with adjccrival predicate and cleft scntcnccs
5.4.1 Quulr&ing pattrrnr
5 4.2 iArntr&ing (clefi) sentencer
verbal forms
5.5
Posscssivc and interrogative pattcrns
5
5.
1 I'or1rsrivr constructions
5.5.2
Intrrrogntivr ronrtrurtionr
7.5..3 7hr "halnnrrd"
rrnrrncr
7.5
4
Othrr fbrn/;zinR urrr of'rhr topicalized Vf'
7.
Vr1l1.1lclair\r, ernbcdded as noun phrases
-,
,
(:onvertcJ rclat~vc
clauscs
7,71
C~'rnrra1fraturrr
7
".2
Rrhtrur conurrsron
of
agrntlrsr rrntcncrr
7.8 Ncgation
in
vcrbal clauscs
7.8.I
contradict^^
nrgation inmain urrbal rhurps
7.8.2
Modal nrgation
7 8.3
Contrary nrgation in urrbal clausrs
7.8.4
Negation of vcrbal predicatrs rmbrddrd as
A
P
Z
8.5
Ncgation of vrrbal prrdicatrs rmbrddrd as NP
7.8.6
Negation of a4rctival conurrsiom
This book is neither a grammar of Ancient Egyptian for Egyptologists nor a
handbook for the study of hieroglyphs. Rather,
it
has been written aiming at
the needs of a multiplicity of audiences. To use a fashionable word,
I
wanted
to address the interdisciplinary interests of linguists and Egyptologists. In
order to achieve this result, I had to resort to sometimes quite diverse
methodological frames and scholarly conventions, which have been and are at
best indifferent to each other, and at times even in overt conflict. On the one
hand, the main goal of the book is to provide the linguistic audience with an
introduction to the historical grammar of Ancient Egyptian, one of the
oldest and longest documented languages of mankind: from its oldest (Old
Egyptian) to its most recent phase (Coptic), Ancient Egyptian remained in
productive written use for more than four millennia
-
from about
3000
BCE to the Middle Ages. On the other hand, the book also tries to reach the
numerically much smaller public of Egyptologists interested in lingi~istic
issues, i.e. my own professional milieu, offering a global presentation of the
language from a structural as well as historical point of view.
Traditionally, the study of Ancient Egyptian
has
been the monopoly of
the latter group of scholars, who operate within the discipline called "Egyp-
tology." In this field of scholarship, the study of the language is necessarily
rooted in philology and has been mainly pursued with the aim of editing or
translating Egyptian and Coptic texts. The handbooks for the academic and
individual study of Egyptian, first and foremost Alan
H.
Gardiner,
Egyptian
Grammar
(Oxford University Press, third edn
1957),
share the assumption
that potential readers are Egyptologists interested primarily in acquiring the
philological tools needed for their professional encounter with Ancient
Egypt: Gardiner's grammar bears the appropriate, although certainly modest
subtitle
Being an Introduction to the Study of Hferoglyphs.
While much work
has been done since then in Egyptian grammar and some of the theoretical
foundations of Gardiner's approach to Egyptian have been shakcn if not
damaged, a linguist interested in the strategies adopted by F.gyptian as
a
languagc will expcrience some distress in finding the answers to
his
or her
queries in modern
secondary
literature.
7.9
Vcrbal syncax in laccr Egyptian
7.9.1
Grnrral fcaturrs
7.9.2
Initial vcrbal clausrs andparatawir
7.9.3
Non-initial vrrbal clausrs and hypotavfi
Z
9.4
Drprndrnt clausrs and subordination
7.9.5
From embedding to convrrsion
Further reading
Epiloguc
Notes
Rrfrrcnrrs
Indm ofpar~age~
Index of motphcme~
Index of lexema
Indix of topics
'1
his distress
IS
not due to
a
lack of linguisric sophistication among Egypt-
ologists; on the contrary, the presence of Egyptological linguistics as one ot
the most vital components of the field of Egyptology is one of the reasons
for my trying to make its discoveries available to other linguists. But
I
doubt
that the work of the more linguistically inclined Egyptologists has been or is
adequately noticed by professional linguists. For one, scholars of Egyptian
linguistics tend to follow the conventions of the broader field of Egyptology
in terms of attitudes to transliteration (just to quote an example: for a
variety of reasons, there still is no universally accepted system for the pho-
netic rendition of Egyptian) and translations (which address the semantic,
rather than the grammatical sphere, interlinear translations being discour-
aged or unknown). Secondly, over the last decades we have preferred to
engage in a dialog among ourselves rather than with the broader audience of
comparative and general linguists, and we have developed conceptual and
terminological conventions that often appear opaque, if not downright
incomprehensible to the non-initiated. This is due in part to the specific
methodological frame adopted by modern students of Egyptian, the so-called
"Standard theory," in part to the ignorance of Egyptian among linguists.
Only recently, thanks to a new generation of Egyptologists also trained in
linguistics, has there been a shift towards an increased interest in theoretical
issues. The present work is a product of this change of perspectives within my
own scholarly community: although
I
have tried to explain unusual terms
when they appear for the first time, a certain familiarity with linguistic
terminology is expected from the Egyptological readership of the book; as for
general linguists, while no previous Egyptological knowledge is required,
I
expect them to devote particular attention to the introduction and to the
chapter on graphemics, where basic preliminaries on chronology, typology,
and notational conventions of Egyptian are discussed at some length.
The concept of "Ancient Egyptian" is taken throughout this book in its
broader scope to comprise all the stages of the language from
Old
Egyptian
to Coptic. While focusing on Old and Middle Egyptian, i.e. on the language
of classical literature, the analysis proceeds diachronically to investigate the
main features of Late Egyptian and Coptic, especially when this evolution
displays changes which attract the linguist's attention. In essence,
I
have tried
to present synchronical sketches of the main properties of classical Egyptian,
Late Egyptian, and Coptic and to consitler the mechanisms of linguistic
change inherent in the history of the Egyptian language.
Although philological and not interlinear, the translation of Egyptian
and Coptic passages providcs in parcnthcsc enough incormation Tor rhc
to
allow them to recognize
all
rhc elcn~cnts
ol
the morpho-
syntactic
3.5
well as lexical structure of the sentence. Mosr Egyptian texts arc
rcfcrred to according to the Egyptological conventions
as
established in the
Lexikon der Agyptologie (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz,
1975
1
386),
in short LA;
only less comn~onl~
quoted texts are accompanied by
a
reference to their
edition. Notes, bibliography and indices try to blend the expectations of the
two potential readerships for which the book is intended. In the notes, whose
number had to be limited to an acceptable minimum, books and articles are
usually referred to in short title; the reference in full detail, however, is given
both at first mention and in the bibliography at the end of the volume.
While abbreviations are used in the notes,
I
have tried to avoid them in the
final bibliography; for the most common ones, the reader is referred to the
list provided in vols.
I
and
IV
of the
LA.
In the notes,
I
often mention only
the more recent treatments of a particular topic, even if the interpretation
offered by the authors differs from mine; this is the reason for the relative
paucity of references to older secondary literature. Modern treatments, how-
ever, usually contain abundant references to previous studies as well. The
index of Egyptian and Coptic passages and of Egyptian grammatical words is
intended mainly for the Egyptological audience, whereas the register of
topics is conceived with a linguistic public in mind.
I
would like to mention and thank those friends and colleagues who in
different ways have participated in the completion of this book: first and
foremost Wolfgang Schenkel, who followed its development with particular
attention and saved me from many inaccuracies, Bernard Comrie, who acted
as a careful and inspiring linguistic reader, and Gerald Moers, who provided
invaluable help in the preparation of the indices; further Heike Behlmer,
Mark Collier, Andrea M. Gnirs, Orly Goldwasser, Sarah I. Groll, Friedrich
lunge, Frank Kammerzell, Aldo Piccato, Dana M. Reemes, Deborah
Sweeney, and Thomas Ritter for fruitful deb~tesand assistance; and finally
Judith Ayling, Hilary Gaskin, and Ann Rex of Cambridge University Press
for guiding me in editorial matters. The book was written in part during a
sabbatical year funded by a University of California President's Fellowship in
the Humanities
(1993-94): 1
would like to acknowledge with sincere thanks
the help and generosity of the Office of the President for providing me with
ideal rebearch conditions.
Thi\ book
is
dedicated
to
my wonderhll ~iat~~hter
Victoria, who is more
ofrcn
than I can bear away from rny eyes,
1~11
alw;ly\
closest
to
my hrart.
nr,~~-s~~cIalIsts
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