ELT Methodology - licencjat 2009.pdf - Licencjat UŚ 2009 - metodyka - asius2306

51. Language skills and subsystems

ELT Methodology

Language educators have long used the concepts of four basic language skills:

Listening

Speaking

Reading

Writing

The four basic skills are related to each other by two parameters:

the mode of communication: oral or written

the direction of communication: receiving or producing the message

We may represent the relationships amo ng the skills in the following char t:

Oral Written

Receptive Listening Reading

Productive Speaking Writing

LISTENING

Listening comprehension is the receptive skill in the oral mode. When we speak of listening what we

really mean is listening and understanding what we hear.

In our first language, we have all the skills and background knowledge we need to understand what we

hear, so we probably aren't even aware of how complex a process it is. Here we will briefly describe

some of what is involved in learning to understand what we hear in a second language.

Listening Situations

interactive, and

non-interactive.

Interactive listening situations include face-to-face conversations and telephone calls, in which we are

alternately listening and speaking, and in which we have a chance to ask for clarification, repetition, or

slower speech from our conversation partner. Some non-interactive listening situations are listening to

the radio, TV, films, lectures, or sermons. In such situations we usually don't have the opportunity to ask

for clarification, slower speech or repetition.

Micro-skills

Richards (1983, cited in Omaggio, 1986 , p. 126) proposes that the following are the micro-skills involved

in understanding what someone says to us. The listener has to:

retain chunks of language in short-term memory

discriminate among the distinctive sounds in the new language

recognize stress and rhythm patterns, tone patterns, intonational contours.

recognize reduced forms of words

distinguish word boundaries

recognize typical word-order patterns

recognize vocabulary

detect key words, such as those identifying topics and ideas

guess meaning from context

recognize grammatical word classes

recognize basic syntactic patterns

recognize cohesive devices

detect sentence constituents, such as subject, verb, object, prepositions, and the like

SPEAKING

Introduction

Speaking is the productive skill in the oral mode. It, like the other skills, is more complicated than it

seems at first and involves more than just pronouncing words.

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There are two kinds of listening situations in which we find ourselves:

There are three kinds of speaking situations in which we find ourselves:

interactive,

partially interactive, and

non-interactive.

Interactive speaking situations include face-to-face conversations and telephone calls, in which we are

alternately listening and speaking, and in which we have a chance to ask for clarification, repetition, or

slower speech from our conversation partner. Some speaking situations are partially interactive, such as

when giving a speech to a live audience, where the convention is that the audience does not interrupt the

speech. The speaker nevertheless can see the audience and judge from the expressions on their faces and

body language whether or not he or she is being understood.

Some few speaking situations may be totally non-interactive, such as when recording a speech for a radio

Here are some of the micro-skills involved in speaking. The speaker has to:

pronounce the distinctive sounds of a language clearly enough so that people can distinguish

them. This includes making tonal distinctions.

use stress and rhythmic patterns, and intonation patterns of the language clearly enough so that

people can understand what is said.

use the correct forms of words. This may mean, for example, changes in the tense, case, or

gender.

put words together in correct word order.

use vocabulary appropriately.

use the register or language variety that is appropriate to the situation and the relationship to the

conversation partner.

make clear to the listener the main sentence constituents, such as subject, verb, object, by

whatever means the language uses.

make the main ideas stand out from supporting ideas or information.

make the discourse hang together so that people can follow what you are saying.

READING

Introduction

Reading is the receptive skill in the written mode. It can develop independently of listening and speaking

skills, but often develops along with them, especially in societies with a highly-developed literary

tradition. Reading can help build vocabulary that helps listening comprehension at the later stages,

particularly.

Micro-skills

decipher the script. In an alphabetic system or a syllabary, this means establishing a relationship

between sounds and symbols. In a pictograph system, it means associating the meaning of the

words with written symbols.

recognize vocabulary.

pick out key words, such as those identifying topics and main ideas.

figure out the meaning of the words, including unfamiliar vocabulary, from the (written) context.

recognize grammatical word classes: noun, adjective, etc.

detect sentence constituents, such as subject, verb, object, prepositions, etc.

recognize basic syntactic patterns.

reconstruct and infer situations, goals and participants.

use both knowledge of the world and lexical and grammatical cohesive devices to make the

foregoing inferences, predict outcomes, and infer links and connections among the parts of the

text.

get the main point or the most important information.

distinguish the main idea from supporting details.

adjust reading strategies to different reading purposes, such as skimming for main ideas or

studying in-depth.

WRITING

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Listening Situations

broadcast .

Micro-skills

Here are some of the micro-skills involved in reading. The reader has to:

Introduction

Writing is the productive skill in the written mode. It, too, is more complicated than it seems at first, and

often seems to be the hardest of the skills, even for native speakers of a language, since it involves not

just a graphic representation of speech, but the development and presentation of thoughts in a structured

way.

Micro-skills

Here are some of the micro-skills involved in writing. The writer needs to:

use the orthography correctly, including the script, and spelling and punctuation conventions.

use the correct forms of words. This may mean using forms that express the right tense, or case

or gender.

put words together in correct word order.

use vocabulary correctly.

use the style appropriate to the genre and audience.

make the main sentence constituents, such as subject, verb, and object, clear to the reader.

make the main ideas distinct from supporting ideas or information.

make the text coherent, so that other people can follow the development of the ideas.

judge how much background knowledge the audience has on the subject and make clear what it

is assumed they don't know.

52.

Integrated skills

INTEGRATED SKILLS IN THE ESL/EFL CLASSROOM

One image for teaching English as a second or foreign language (ESL/EFL) is that of a tapestry. The

tapestry is woven from many strands, such as the characteristics of the teacher, the learner, the setting, and the

relevant languages (i.e., English and the native languages of the learners and the teacher). For the instructional

loom to produce a large, strong, beautiful, colorful tapestry, all of these strands must be interwoven in positive

ways. For example, the instructor's teaching style must address the learning style of the learner, the learner must

be motivated, and the setting must provide resources and values that strongly support the teaching of the

language. However, if the strands are not woven together effectively, the instructional loom is likely to produce

something small, weak, ragged, and pale--not recognizable as a tapestry at all.

In addition to the four strands mentioned above--teacher, learner, setting, and relevant languages--other

important strands exist in the tapestry. In a practical sense, one of the most crucial of these strands consists of

the four primary skills of listening, reading, speaking, and writing. This strand also includes associated or related

skills such as knowledge of vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation, syntax, meaning, and usage. The skill strand of

the tapestry leads to optimal ESL/EFL communication when the skills are interwoven during instruction. This is

known as the integrated-skill approach.

If this weaving together does not occur, the strand consists merely of discrete, segregated skills--parallel threads

that do not touch, support, or interact with each other. This is sometimes known as the segregated-skill

approach. Another title for this mode of instruction is the language-based approach, because the language itself

is the focus of instruction (language for language's sake). In this approach, the emphasis is not on learning for

authentic communication.

By examining segregated-skill instruction, we can see the advantages of integrating the skills and move

toward improving teaching for English language learners. SEGREGATED-SKILL INSTRUCTIONIn the

segregated-skill approach, the mastery of discrete language skills such as reading and speaking is seen as the key

to successful learning, and language learning is typically separate from content learning (Mohan, 1986). This is

contrary to the integrated way that people use language skills in normal communication, and it clashes with the

direction in which language teaching experts have been moving in recent years.

Skill segregation is reflected in traditional ESL/EFL programs that offer classes focusing on segregated language

skills. Why do they offer such classes? Perhaps teachers and administrators think it is logistically easier to present

courses on writing divorced from speaking, or on listening isolated from reading. They may believe that it is

instructionally impossible to concentrate on more than one skill at a time.

Even if it were possible to fully develop one or two skills in the absence of all the others, such an

approach would not ensure adequate preparation for later success in academic communication, career-related

language use, or everyday interaction in the language. An extreme example is the grammar-translation method,

which teaches students to analyze grammar and to translate (usually in writing) from one language to another.

This method restricts language learning to a very narrow, noncommunicative range that does not prepare

students to use the language in everyday life.

Frequently, segregated-skill ESL/EFL classes present instruction in terms of skill-linked learning

strategies: reading strategies, listening strategies, speaking strategies, and writing strategies (see Peregoy & Boyle,

2001). Learning strategies are strategies that students employ, most often consciously, to improve their learning.

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Examples are guessing meaning based on context, breaking a sentence or word down into parts to understand

the meaning, and practicing the language with someone else.

Very frequently, experts demonstrate strategies as though they were linked to only one particular skill,

such as reading or writing (e.g., Peregoy & Boyle, 2001). However, it can be confusing or misleading to believe

that a given strategy is associated with only one specific language skill. Many strategies, such as paying selective

attention, self-evaluating, asking questions, analyzing, synthesizing, planning, and predicting, are applicable across

skill areas (see Oxford, 1990). Common strategies help weave the skills together. Teaching students to improve

their learning strategies in one skill area can often enhance performance in all language skills (Oxford, 1996).

Fortunately, in many instances where an ESL or EFL course is labeled by a single skill, the segregation

of language skills might be only partial or even illusory. If the teacher is creative, a course bearing a discrete-skill

title might actually involve multiple, integrated skills. For example, in a course on intermediate reading, the

teacher probably gives all of the directions orally in English, thus causing students to use their listening ability to

understand the assignment. In this course, students might discuss their readings, thus employing speaking and

listening skills and certain associated skills, such as pronunciation, syntax, and social usage. Students might be

asked to summarize or analyze readings in written form, thus activating their writing skills. In a real sense, then,

some courses that are labeled according to one specific skill might actually reflect an integrated-skill approach

after all.

The same can be said for ESL/EFL textbooks. A particular series might highlight certain skills in one book or

another, but all the language skills might nevertheless be present in the tasks in each book. In this way, students

have the benefit of practicing all the language skills in an integrated, natural, communicative way, even if one skill

is the main focus of a given volume.

In contrast to segregated-skill instruction, both actual and apparent, there are at least two forms of instruction

that are clearly oriented toward integrating the skills. TWO FORMS OF INTEGRATED-SKILL

INSTRUCTION

Two types of integrated-skill instruction are content-based language instruction and task-based instruction. The

first of these emphasizes learning content through language, while the second stresses doing tasks that require

communicative language use. Both of these benefit from a diverse range of materials, textbooks, and

technologies for the ESL or EFL classroom.

"Content-Based Instruction." In content-based instruction, students practice all the language skills in a highly

integrated, communicative fashion while learning content such as science, mathematics, and social studies.

Content-based language instruction is valuable at all levels of proficiency, but the nature of the content might

differ by proficiency level. For beginners, the content often involves basic social and interpersonal

communication skills, but past the beginning level, the content can become increasingly academic and complex.

The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA), created by Chamot and O'Malley (1994)

shows how language learning strategies can be integrated into the simultaneous learning of content and language.

At least three general models of content-based language instruction exist: theme-based, adjunct, and sheltered

(Scarcella & Oxford, 1992). The theme-based model integrates the language skills into the study of a theme (e.g.,

urban violence, cross-cultural differences in marriage practices, natural wonders of the world, or a broad topic

such as change). The theme must be very interesting to students and must allow a wide variety of language skills

to be practiced, always in the service of communicating about the theme. This is the most useful and widespread

form of content-based instruction today, and it is found in many innovative ESL and EFL textbooks. In the

adjunct model, language and content courses are taught separately but are carefully coordinated. In the sheltered

model, the subject matter is taught in simplified English tailored to students' English proficiency level.

"Task-Based Instruction." In task-based instruction, students participate in communicative tasks in English.

Tasks are defined as activities that can stand alone as fundamental units and that require comprehending,

producing, manipulating, or interacting in authentic language while attention is principally paid to meaning rather

than form (Nunan, 1989).

The task-based model is beginning to influence the measurement of learning strategies, not just the teaching of

ESL and EFL. In task-based instruction, basic pair work and group work are often used to increase student

interaction and collaboration. For instance, students work together to write and edit a class newspaper, develop a

television commercial, enact scenes from a play, or take part in other joint tasks. More structured cooperative

learning formats can also be used in task-based instruction. Task-based instruction is relevant to all levels of

language proficiency, but the nature of the task varies from one level to the other. Tasks become increasingly

complex at higher proficiency levels. For instance, beginners might be asked to introduce each other and share

one item of information about each other. More advanced students might do more intricate and demanding

tasks, such as taking a public opinion poll at school, the university, or a shopping mall.

ADVANTAGES OF THE INTEGRATED-SKILL APPROACH

The integrated-skill approach, as contrasted with the purely segregated approach, exposes English language

learners to authentic language and challenges them to interact naturally in the language. Learners rapidly gain a

true picture of the richness and complexity of the English language as employed for communication. Moreover,

this approach stresses that English is not just an object of academic interest nor merely a key to passing an

examination; instead, English becomes a real means of interaction and sharing among people. This approach

allows teachers to track students' progress in multiple skills at the same time. Integrating the language skills also

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promotes the learning of real content, not just the dissection of language forms. Finally, the integrated-skill

approach, whether found in content-based or task-based language instruction or some hybrid form, can be

highly motivating to students of all ages and backgrounds.

INTEGRATING THE LANGUAGE SKILLS

In order to integrate the language skills in ESL/EFL instruction,teachers should consider taking these steps:

* Learn more about the various ways to integrate language skills in theclassroom (e.g., content-based, task-based,

or a combination).

* Reflect on their current approach and evaluate the extent to which theskills are integrated.

* Choose instructional materials, textbooks, and technologies that promotethe integration of listening, reading,

speaking, and writing, as well as theassociated skills of syntax, vocabulary, and so on.

* Even if a given course is labeled according to just one skill, rememberthat it is possible to integrate the other

language skills throughappropriate tasks.

* Teach language learning strategies and emphasize that a given strategycan often enhance performance in

multiple skills.

CONCLUSION

With careful reflection and planning, any teacher can integrate the language skills and strengthen the tapestry of

language teaching and learning. When the tapestry is woven well, learners can use English effectively for

communication.

53.

Inductive vs. deductive teaching

DEDUCTIVE APPROACH

A deductive approach to teaching language starts by giving learners rules, then examples, then practice. It is a

teacher-centred approach to presenting new content. This is compared with an inductive approach, which starts

with examples and asks learners to find rules, and hence is more learner-centred.

Example

The form and use of the third conditional is explained to learners, then they have a gap-fill exercise to complete,

then prepare their own examples.

In the classroom

The deductive approach may be suitable with lower level learners who need a clear base from which to begin

with a new language item, or with learners who are accustomed to a more traditional approach and so who lack

the training to find rules themselves.

INDUCTIVE APPROACH

An inductive approach to teaching language starts with examples and asks learners to find rules. It can be

compared with a deductive approach that starts by giving learners rules, then examples, then practice.

Example

Learners listen to a conversation that includes examples of the use of the third conditional. The teacher checks

that the students understand the meaning of its use through checking learners' comprehension of the listening

text, and only after this focuses on the form, using the examples from the text to elicit rules about the form, its

use and its pronunciation.

In the classroom

Inductive approaches to presenting new language are commonly found in course books, and form part of a

general strategy to engage learners in what they learn. Some learners may need introduction to inductive

approaches since they may be more familiar, and feel more comfortable with a deductive approach .

54.

The PPP model of L2 teaching

PPP

PPP is a paradigm or model used to describe typical stages of a presentation of new language. It means

presentation, production and practice. The practice stage aims to provide opportunities for learners to use the

target structure. Criticism of this paradigm argues that the freer 'practice' stage may not elicit the target

language as it is designed to do, as in this meaning-based stage, students communicate with any language they

can. It is not clear that forcing students to use certain structures to communicate in a practice activity will

necessarily mean they will use these structures spontaneously later.

Example

The teacher presents and illustrates the communicative purpose of a new structure 'If I was you…' for advice.

Then learners use prompts to complete sentences with the correct forms of the verbs. They practise by giving

each other advice.

In the classroom

Despite current doubts about the usefulness of the practice stage in the PPP model, it is still a common

framework to find in classes and in materials.

55.

Stages of a foreign language lesson

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