Modern_Physical_Metallurgy_Materials_Engineering_6E.pdf

Modern Physical Metallurgy and Materials Engineering

About the authors

been Vice President of the Institute of Materials and

President of the Federated European Materials Soci-

eties. Since retirement he has been academic consultant

for a number of institutions both in the UK and over-

seas.

ProfessorR.E.Smallman

After gaining his PhD in 1953, Professor Smallman

spent ﬁve years at the Atomic Energy Research Estab-

lishment at Harwell, before returning to the University

of Birmingham where he became Professor of Physi-

cal Metallurgy in 1964 and Feeney Professor and Head

of the Department of Physical Metallurgy and Science

of Materials in 1969. He subsequently became Head

of the amalgamated Department of Metallurgy and

Materials (1981), Dean of the Faculty of Science and

Engineering, and the ﬁrst Dean of the newly-created

Engineering Faculty in 1985. For ﬁve years he was

Vice-Principal of the University (1987 – 92).

He has held visiting professorship appointments at

the University of Stanford, Berkeley, Pennsylvania

(USA), New South Wales (Australia), Hong Kong and

Cape Town and has received Honorary Doctorates

from the University of Novi Sad (Yugoslavia) and

the University of Wales. His research work has been

recognized by the award of the Sir George Beilby Gold

Medal of the Royal Institute of Chemistry and Institute

of Metals (1969), the Rosenhain Medal of the Institute

of Metals for contributions to Physical Metallurgy

(1972) and the Platinum Medal, the premier medal of

the Institute of Materials (1989).

He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society

(1986), a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineer-

ing (1990) and appointed a Commander of the British

Empire (CBE) in 1992. A former Council Member of

the Science and Engineering Research Council, he has

R. J. Bishop

After working in laboratories of the automobile,

forging, tube-drawing and razor blade industries

(1944 – 59), Ray Bishop became a Principal Scientist

of the British Coal Utilization Research Association

(1959 – 68), studying superheater-tube corrosion and

mechanisms of ash deposition on behalf of boiler

manufacturers and the Central Electricity Generating

Board. He specialized in combustor simulation of

conditions within pulverized-fuel-ﬁred power station

boilers and ﬂuidized-bed combustion systems. He then

became a Senior Lecturer in Materials Science at

the Polytechnic (now University), Wolverhampton,

acting at various times as leader of C&G, HNC, TEC

and CNAA honours Degree courses and supervising

doctoral researches. For seven years he was Open

University Tutor for materials science and processing

in the West Midlands. In 1986 he joined the

School of Metallurgy and Materials, University of

Birmingham as a part-time Lecturer and was involved

in administration of the Federation of European

Materials Societies (FEMS). In 1995 and 1997 he

gave lecture courses in materials science at the Naval

Postgraduate School, Monterey, California. Currently

he is an Honorary Lecturer at the University of

Birmingham.

Modern Physical Metallurgy

and Materials Engineering

Science, process, applications

Sixth Edition

R. E. Smallman, CBE, DSc, FRS, FREng, FIM

R. J. Bishop, PhD, CEng, MIM

OXFORD AUCKLAND BOSTON JOHANNESBURG MELBOURNE NEW DELHI

Butterworth-Heinemann

Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP

225 Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 01801-2041

A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd

First published 1962

Second edition 1963

Reprinted 1965, 1968

Third edition 1970

Reprinted 1976 (twice), 1980, 1983

Fourth edition 1985

Reprinted 1990, 1992

Fifth edition 1995

Sixth edition 1999

Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd 1995, 1999

reproduced in any material form (including photocopy-

ing or storing in any medium by electronic means and

whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other

use of this publication) without the written permission of

the copyright holder except in accordance with the

provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act

1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the

Road, London, England W1P 9HE. Applications for the

part of this publication should be addressed to the

publishers

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN 0 7506 4564 4

Composition by Scribe Design, Gillingham, Kent, UK

Typeset by Laser Words, Madras, India

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Bath Press, Avon

Contents

Preface xi

3 Structural phases; their formation and

transitions 42

3.1 Crystallization from the melt 42

3.1.1 Freezing of a pure metal 42

3.1.2 Plane-front and dendritic

solidiﬁcation at a cooled

surface 43

3.1.3 Forms of cast structure 44

3.1.4 Gas porosity and segregation 45

3.1.5 Directional solidiﬁcation 46

3.1.6 Production of metallic single crystals

for research 47

3.2 Principles and applications of phase

diagrams 48

3.2.1 The concept of a phase 48

3.2.2 The Phase Rule 48

3.2.3 Stability of phases 49

3.2.4 Two-phase equilibria 52

3.2.5 Three-phase equilibria and

reactions 56

3.2.6 Intermediate phases 58

3.2.7 Limitations of phase diagrams 59

3.2.8 Some key phase diagrams 60

3.2.9 Ternary phase diagrams 64

3.3 Principles of alloy theory 73

3.3.1 Primary substitutional solid

solutions 73

3.3.2 Interstitial solid solutions 76

3.3.3 Types of intermediate phases 76

3.3.4 Order-disorder phenomena 79

3.4 The mechanism of phase changes 80

3.4.1 Kinetic considerations 80

3.4.2 Homogeneous nucleation 81

3.4.3 Heterogeneous nucleation 82

3.4.4 Nucleation in solids 82

1 The structure and bonding of atoms 1

1.1 The realm of materials science 1

1.2 The free atom 2

1.2.1 The four electron quantum

numbers 2

1.2.2 Nomenclature for electronic

states 3

1.3 The Periodic Table 4

1.4 Interatomic bonding in materials 7

1.5 Bonding and energy levels 9

2 Atomic arrangements in materials 11

2.1 The concept of ordering 11

2.2 Crystal lattices and structures 12

2.3 Crystal directions and planes 13

2.4 Stereographic projection 16

2.5 Selected crystal structures 18

2.5.1 Pure metals 18

2.5.2 Diamond and graphite 21

2.5.3 Coordination in ionic crystals 22

2.5.4 AB-type compounds 24

2.5.5 Silica 24

2.5.6 Alumina 26

2.5.7 Complex oxides 26

2.5.8 Silicates 27

2.6 Inorganic glasses 30

2.6.1 Network structures in glasses 30

2.6.2 Classiﬁcation of constituent

oxides 31

2.7 Polymeric structures 32

2.7.1 Thermoplastics 32

2.7.2 Elastomers 35

2.7.3 Thermosets 36

2.7.4 Crystallinity in polymers 38

4 Defects in solids 84

4.1 Types of imperfection 84

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