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Biomechanics

PRINCIPLES

and APPLICATIONS

Edited by

DANIEL J. SCHNECK

JOSEPH D. BRONZINO

CRC PRESS

Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Biomechanics : principles and applications / edited by Daniel Schneck and Joseph D. Bronzino.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-8493-1492-5 (alk. paper)

1. Biomechanics. I. Schneck, Daniel J. II. Bronzino, Joseph D., 1937–

QH513 .B585 2002

571.4

3—dc21

2002073353

CIP

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with

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This material was originally published in Vol. 1 of

The Biomedical Engineering Handbook

, 2nd ed.,

Joseph D. Bronzino, Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2000.

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Preface

IS THE ENGINEERING SCIENCE that deals with studying, deﬁning, and math-

ematically quantifying “interactions” that take place among “things” in our universe. Our

ability to perceive the physical manifestation of such interactions is embedded in the concept

of a

force,

and the “things” that transmit forces among themselves are classiﬁed for purposes of analysis

or some combination of the two. The distinction between solid behavior and ﬂuid

behavior has to do with whether or not the “thing” involved has disturbance-response characteristics

that are time rate dependent. A constant force transmitted to a

solid,

ﬂuid,

material will generally elicit a discrete,

ﬁnite, time-independent deformation response, whereas the same force transmitted to a

solid

ﬂuid

will elicit

In general, whether or not a given material will behave

as a solid or a ﬂuid often depends on its thermodynamic state (i.e., its temperature, pressure, etc.).

Moreover, for a given thermodynamic state, some “things” are solid-like when deformed at certain rates

but show ﬂuid behavior when disturbed at other rates, so they are appropriately called

ﬂow.

viscoelastic,

which

literally means “ﬂuid-solid.” Thus a more technical deﬁnition of

mechanics

is the science that deals with

the action of forces on solids, ﬂuids, and viscoelastic materials.

Bio

mechanics then deals with the time

and space response characteristics of

biological

solids, ﬂuids, and viscoelastic materials to imposed systems

of internal and external forces.

The ﬁeld of biomechanics has a long history. As early as the fourth century

., we ﬁnd in the works

.) attempts to describe through geometric analysis the mechanical action of

muscles in producing locomotion of parts or all of the animal body. Nearly 2000 years later, in his famous

anatomic drawings, Leonardo da Vinci (

. 1452–1519) sought to describe the mechanics of standing,

walking up and down hill, rising from a sitting position, and jumping, and Galileo (

. 1564–1643)

followed with some of the earliest attempts to mathematically analyze physiologic function. Because of

his pioneering efforts in deﬁning the anatomic circulation of blood, William Harvey (

. 1578–1657) is

credited by many as being the father of modern-day bioﬂuid mechanics, and Alfonso Borelli (

1608–1679) shares the same honor for contemporary biosolid mechanics because of his efforts to explore

the amount of force produced by various muscles and his theorization that bones serve as levers that are

operated and controlled by muscles. The early work of these pioneers of biomechanics was followed up

by the likes of Sir Isaac Newton (

. 1642–1727), Daniel Bernoulli (

. 1700–1782), Jean L. M. Poiseuille

. 1773–1829), Euler (whose work was published in 1862), and others

of equal fame. To enumerate all their individual contributions would take up much more space than is

available in this short introduction, but there is a point to be made if one takes a closer look.

In reviewing the preceding list of biomechanical scientists, it is interesting to observe that many of the

earliest contributions to our ultimate understanding of the fundamental laws of

. 1799–1869), Thomas Young (

physics

and

engineering

(e.g., Bernoulli’s equation of hydrodynamics, the famous Young’s modulus in elasticity theory, Poiseuille

ﬂow, and so on) came from

physicians, physiologists,

and other health care practitioners seeking to study

structure and function. The irony in this is that as history has progressed, we

have just about turned this situation completely around. That is, more recently, it has been

physiologic

biomedical

engineers

who have been making the greatest contributions to the advancement of the

medical

and

sciences. These contributions will become more apparent in the chapters that follow that

address the subjects of

biosolid

mechanics and

bioﬂuid

mechanics as they pertain to various subsystems

of the human body.

Since the physiologic organism is 60 to 75% ﬂuid, it is not surprising that the subject of bioﬂuid

mechanics should be so extensive, including—but not limited to—lubrication of human synovial joints

(Chapter 4), cardiac biodynamics (Chapter 11), mechanics of heart valves (Chapter 12), arterial macro-

circulatory hemodynamics (Chapter 13), mechanics and transport in the microcirculation (Chapter 14),

ECHANICS

as being

a continuous, time-dependent response called

of Aristotle (384–322

(

and explain

physiologic

venous hemodynamics (Chapter 16), mechanics of the lymphatic system (Chapter 17), cochlear mechan-

ics (Chapter 18), and vestibular mechanics (Chapter 19). The area of biosolid mechanics is somewhat

more loosely deﬁned—since all physiologic tissue is viscoelastic and not strictly solid in the engineering

sense of the word. Also generally included under this heading are studies of the kinematics and kinetics

of human posture and locomotion, i.e.,

biodynamics,

so that under the generic section on biosolid

you will ﬁnd chapters addressing the mechanics of hard tissue (Chapter 1),

the mechanics of blood vessels (Chapter 2) or, more generally, the mechanics of viscoelastic tissue,

mechanics of joint articulating surface motion (Chapter 3), musculoskeletal soft tissue mechanics

(Chapter 5), mechanics of the head/neck (Chapter 6), mechanics of the chest/abdomen (Chapter 7), the

analysis of gait (Chapter 8), exercise physiology (Chapter 9), biomechanics and factors affecting mechani-

cal work in humans (Chapter 10), and mechanics and deformability of hematocytes (blood cells) (Chapter

15). In all cases, the ultimate objectives of the science of biomechanics are generally twofold. First,

biomechanics aims to understand fundamental aspects of physiologic function for purely medical pur-

poses, and, second, it seeks to elucidate such function for mostly nonmedical applications.

In the ﬁrst instance above, sophisticated techniques have been and continue to be developed to

Handbook

monitor

physiologic function, to

process

the data thus accumulated, to formulate inductively

theories

that explain

why the human “engine” malfunctions as a result

of disease (pathology), aging (gerontology), ordinary wear and tear from normal use (fatigue), and/or

accidental impairment from extraordinary abuse (emergency medicine). In the above sense, engineers

deal

diagnose

as it relates to anatomic and physiologic malfunction. However, the work

does not stop there, for it goes on to provide as well the foundation for the development of technologies

to treat and maintain (

with

causation

) the human organism in response to malfunction, and this involves

biomechanical analyses that have as their ultimate objective an improved health care delivery system.

Such improvement includes, but is not limited to, a much healthier

therapy

lifestyle

(exercise physiology and

sports biomechanics), the ability to

repair

and/or

rehabilitate

body parts, and a technology to

support

them completely

(with prosthetic parts). Nonmedical applications of biomechanics exploit essentially the same methods

and technologies as do those oriented toward the delivery of health care, but in the former case, they

involve mostly studies to deﬁne the response of the body to “unusual” environments—such as subgravity

conditions, the aerospace milieu, and extremes of temperature, humidity, altitude, pressure, acceleration,

deceleration, impact, shock and vibration, and so on. Additional applications include vehicular safety

considerations, the mechanics of sports activity, the ability of the body to “tolerate” loading without failing,

and the expansion of the envelope of human performance capabilities—for whatever purpose! And so,

with this very brief introduction, let us take somewhat of a closer look at the subject of biomechanics.

replace

Free body diagram of the foot.

mechanics in this

the data, and to extrapolate deductively, i.e., to

directly

ailing physiologic organs (orthotics) and/or, if it should become necessary, to

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