Anna Wierzbicka - Semantics. Primes and Universals (OUP, 1996).pdf - Językoznawstwo - elizek

SEMANTICS

Primes and Universals

ANNA WIERZBECKA

Oxford

New York

iOlXFlOlRD UNIVERSITY PRESS

Oxford University Press, WaI~onStreet, Oxford 0x2 16~~-

OxJTord Mew York

Athens Aucklmd Bangkok &day

Caimlta Cape Town Dar es Sahorn DeWi

iESorence Hong Kong Iseanbul Karachi

K~ataLumpr Madria Madrid Me&ourne

Mexico City Nairnrbi Forb Sagepore

Wipei Tokyo Toramto

and associated companies k

Berh lbadan

Acknowledgements

This book owes a great deal to my friend and colleague Cliff Goddard of

the Universiky of New England, who read and ma& very detailed comments

on the first draft of it. I; have revised all the chapters, same of them quite

extensively, in response to Cliff's criticisms and suggestions. Over a number

af years, CliU ;has been my principal partner in the search for semantic

primes and semanticuniversals, and interminable tdephone Biscussions with

him have knan unfailing souce of insight and inte1lectud pleasure.

1 arnn also very grateful to my old friend Andrzej Bogustawski of Warsaw

TJmiversity, who three decades ago initiated the search for semantic primes,

who has mntinued this search thoughout this period, and who, despite dis-

tance, has remained an invaluable interlocutor and colleague.

I would like to thank the colleagues who read and mmemted on an ear-

lier draft of the Introduction to this book and thus enabled me to improve

it, in particular Sasha AikhenvaPd, Avery hhews,Jentcrnne Bmner, Bob

Dixont, Mark hrie, Ian Green, Jean Harkins, Randy Allen Harris, Helen

WLoghlin, Andy Pawlley, and Jane Simpson.

I am particularly grateful to my extremely able Research Assistant, Helen

O'Loghlin, who went far beyond the call of duty in assisting me to prepare

this book for publication, chasing references, tracking down iineansistcneies

and errors, dis~ussing

Oxford is a erode mark of Oxford University Press

rhb pwbticntiom may be reproduced,

stored {na retrieval system, or transmitted, b any form or by any means,

without the prbr permisston h wrilfng of Oxford University Press.

WizFtin IsUK, exceptions are aljowed k respect of any fair deating for the

plrspose of research or private study, or criticism or review. as permared

wder !he iL$pyrighf,Designs md Paeenrs Act# 1198. or in tf~e

in accurdance with the term ofthe Ifcences

issued by tk Cupyrigh~Licensing Agency. Eaquiries camcernirsg

reproduction outsfde these termmd in other countrie~should be

Sent to the Rights Department. Oxford Umiversity Press,

at !he address abave

case of

conseat in anyform of binding or cover

other than rhes in which it is pubEished and without a simifar condition

inchtdtng lhEr condirfonbeing imposed on the subseqwent purchaser

British Library Catab,,uing in Pub!ica?totiData

Dada awaiIabi'e

Library .ya Congress C~taiogrhg h Publication Dara

Senrmsltcs :primes and universab / Aana Mfierzbicka.

JncIudes previow$ pubhhed materiaf rev. mdexprmded

ior Ihb pubficatbn.

Jnizchdes bi5Siographkal references and index.

1. $emnnrfc.~. 2. Universa!~'s(Lingtais#ics]3. Grammar,

campararive and genera!. 4 Language and dture. 1. Titte.

~3125.5.~54~54 19%

ideas, and suggesting possible ways of improvement.

Her help was indispensable. I would like, too, to thank the Australian

Research Council for a grant for research assistanw, which made this pos-

sible. I would also like to thank Tim Curnow, who worked as my Research

Assistant at an earlier stage of the preparation of the book {also under an

ARC grant), and whose help was also invaluable.

It is also a pleasure to express my heartfelt gratitude and appreciation to

Ellalene Seymour, for her expert, patient, and good-humowlred typing and

editing of the sruwessive drafts of this book.

Finally, I would like to thank my students at the Australian Nationaie

University, and in particular, the participants of my Seminar on Semantics,

who have contributed both valuable data and ideas to the project.

Some portions of this book first appeared, in different fom, as articles

in journals or as chapters in colllective volumes. I thank the publishers

far permission to include revised and expanded versions of the following

publications or parts thereoE

~oI~.~~Ac~o

95-2fprm

Prixrted in Great 8rirah

on acid$ree paper by

Bookcrojt (80th) Ltd,

Mi&omer Norma

O Anna Wierzbicka 1996

AN rigfigs reservtrd No past 01

reprographic ~epr0d~clid)FI

Thk book b soM mbject to the condition let it shdl not, by WQJJ

of8~11pde

or olherwke, be !en#,re-soh$, faired on8 or ofjiwwfse circu!ale$

vvilhorrs rkepu5liskr~~ur

Studies in Li~gwisfkCafegorizatiem. London: Routfdge & Kegan Pau1.

19910. 347-3167.

Semantic Primitives and Semantic Fidds. In Adrienne Lekres and Eva Fder Kittag

(eds,). Frames" Fie[&, ad Contrwfs: New Essays EjJ Semantic and LexScaE

Organization. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Esfbalum. 1992. 209-27.

Semantic Complexity: Conwptual Primitives and the Principle of Substitutability.

Theoretical ICimg~lis~ies,

E 7. 1991. 75-97,

Semantic Uniwzrsals and Trlmitlve Thought? The Question ofthe Psychk Unity of

Humankind. .?~u~aal

I. GENERAL ISSUES

A~nthropafogy. U1. 1994. 1-27, l667.

Ostensive Definitions and Verbal Definitions: Innate Conceptual Primitives tand the

Acquisition of Concepts, In Maciej Grochowski and Daniel Weiss (eds.]. Worthare

Physieiamjor an AiEing Mhd Sagners Slavistische Sammlung, xvii. Munich: Otto

Sagner. 1991. 46740.

Back tra Definitions: tagnition, Semantics, and Lexicography. Lexfcograph[ca. 8.

1992. 14W4. (Published in 1994.1

What we the Uses of Theorebid Lexicography? Didbnaries. 14. 1992-3. 44-7%.

Replies to Discussmts. DLfimwries. 14, 1992-93. 139-59.

The Meaning of Conour Terms: Semantics, CnBture, and Cognition. Cognitive

Lingwtstics. l$1. 1990. 99-P-nTO.

Dictionaries versus Encyclopaedias: How to Draw the Line. In Philip Davis i(ed.1.

DescrQative wd Thearetical Modes in the Alternative LinisguLrics. Philadelphia!

Amsterdam: John Benjds.Forthcoming.

What is a Life Form? Conceptual Issues in Ebhnolbiologg. Journal of Linguistic

AmrhropoIagp. 21. 1992. 3-21).

Semantic Rules Know no Exoeptions. Studies in htagttage. 15B. 1991. 37 1-98.

The Semantics of Grammar: A Reply to Professor Palmer. Journal af Lingwhtics.

27/2. 1991. 495-8.

k Semantic Basis far Grammatical Typdogg. In Werner Abraham, Talmy Givon,

aad Sandra Thompson (eds.). Discourse. Gramnr and Typolagye Complementary

Series of Studies in Language. Amsterdam: John Bemjamins. l79-209.

Semamftics and Epistemology: The Meaning of 'Evidentials' in a Cross-linguistic

Perspective. Language Sciences. 16,'I. 1994. 8 1-137.

1. Language and Meanring

2. SemantL Primitives (or Primes)

3. Lexical Universals

4. Innate Conapts and Language Acquisition

5. The Universal Syntax of Meaning

6. The iC\Baturrul Semantic Metalanguage mSM)

7. Semantic Invariants

8. Metlhodologi@d Issues

9. Past, Present, and Future of NSM Semantic Theory

2. A Smrvey af Semantic Prirnitivlt?~

A. OLD PRPMITIVES

11. Introduction

2. Substantives: I, YOU, SOMEONE, SOMETHING,

PEOPLE

3. Determiners: THIS, THE SAME, OTHER

4. Quantifiers: ONE, WQ, MANY (MUCH)l, ALL

5. Mental Predicates: THINK, KNOW, WANT, FEEL

6. Speech: SAY

7, Actions and Events: DO and HAPPEN

8. Evaluators: GOOD and SAD

9. Descriptors: BIG and SMALL

10. Tim: WHEN, BEFORE, AFTER

1 1. Space: WHERE, UNDER, ABOVE

12. Partonomy and Taxonomy: BART (OF) and KIND (OF)

13, Metapredicates: NOT, CAN, VERY

84. Zntercllawsal Linkers: IF, BECAUSE, LIKE

B. NEW PRPMJTWES

15. Introduction

16. Determiners and Quantifiers: SOME and MORE

17. Mental Predicates: SEE and HEAR

18. M~~~vememt,

Exisllenoe, Life: MOVE, THERE IS, LIVE

'Prototypes Save? On the Uses and Abuses of the Notion of 'Prototype' in

Linguistics and Relaked Fields. In Savas L. Tsohactzidis (ed.). Meanings md

P~o~obypes:

~JLi~~guEsfic

19. Space: FAR and NEAR, SIDE, INSIDE, HERE

2. Natural Kinds and Cultural Kinds

3. Speech Act Verbs

4. Emotion Concepts

5. Conclusion

20. The:A LONG TIME, A SHORT TIME, NOW

21. Imagination and Possibility: IF . . . WOULD, CAN,

MAYBE

101

22. WORD

107

6. Semantics and 'Trimi~vea?.ougStW

184

23. General Discussion: Opposites and Converses

108

24. Conclusion

110

1. Introduction

2. The Universality of BECAUSE

3. The Universality of IF

4, The Universality of SOMEONE

5. The Universality of ALL

6. The Universality of KNOW and THINK

7, General Discussian

3. Universal Grammar: The Syntax mf Udxersal Semantic Primitives 112

1. Introduction

1112

2. Preliminary Discussion

P 113

3. Substantives: YOU, I; SOMEONE, PEOPLE;

SOMETHING

P 14

4. Mental Predicates: THINK, KNOW, WANT, FEEL, SEE,

HEAR

119

7. Semantic CompIexty and the Wob IcDf Ostemsian in the

Acquisitian of Cancepb

211

5. Sglm3Al: SAY

120

6. Actions, Events, and Movement: DO, HAFPEN, MOVE

122

1. Introduction

211 1

7. Existence and Life: BE (THERE ISARE) and LIVE

3 24

2. Complex Concepts as Configurations of Simple Ones

2112

8. Determiners and Qluanltifiers: THIS, THE SAME,

OTHER; ONE, TWO, hiZAW (MUCH], SOME, ALL

3. Abstract Concepts: Words For Emotions

2114

126

4. Relatively Simple Concrete Concepts: Body Parts and the

Natural Environment

9. Augmentor: MORE

129

2118

10. Evaluators: GOOD and DAD

130

5. Temperature Terms and the Conoept of 'Fire'

22 1

I I. Descriptors: BIG and SMALL

131

6. Cultural and Naturall Kinds: 'Breadknd Water'

225

12. Time: WHEN, AFTER, BEFORE, A LONG TIME, A

SNORT TIME, NOW

7. Plugging Concepts In

232

13 1

8. Conclusion

233

13. Space: WHERE; FAR, NEAR; UNDER, ABOVE; SIDE;

INSIDE; HERE

14. 1ntercUausa;mlLinkers: BECAUSE, IF, IF ... WOULD

133

1l. LEXICAL SEMANTICS

235

137

15. Clause Operators: NOT and MAYBE

139

116. Metapredicate CAN

140

I. Linguistic Meaning

2. Definitions as a Tool far Cross-cuIturaQResearch

3. The Conoept of a Semantic Invariant

4. Determinacy of Meaning

5. Problems of Polysemy

6. Lexical Mearming and Illocutionary Rhetorical Devices

7. Family Resemblances

8. Dictionary Definitions

9. Fodor on Definitions

10. Clsnclusion

11 7. Intensifier: VERY

141

18. Taxonomy, Partonomy: KIND OF, PART OF

1141

14. Similarity: LIKE

143

20. General Discussion

144

4. Prototypes amd Invmiiants

3148

P . Intwducticrn

148

32. Abuses of "'Prototypes'9n Semantics: Some Illustraitions

149

-b3. Uses of 'Tro~totypes"in Semantics: Some Illustrations

160

4. Conclusion

167

9. Semawtics and kxicogrspby

P. Introduction

2. Scope versus Adequag and Truth

5. Semrrwdc RimiitiExes and Semantic Fields

1. Introduction

3. Saying Something that is not True

4. Saying Something that is Superfluous

5. Confusing Meaning with Knowledge

6. Definition8 which are too Broad

7. Capturing the Invariant

8. Standing Firmly on the Cirollmd of Discreteness

9. Distinguishing Polysemy from Vagueness

10. Avoiding Circularity

11. Relying on Indefinables

12. Using Simple Language

13. Exploring New Models of Definition

14. Conclusion

3. Types of Linguistic Evidenm 355

4. "Life FomsY3nEnglish Folk Zoology 358

5. Are there Monogeneric ""LiEe Forms"? 360

6. "Life Foms'7n English Folk Botany 361

7. Polflypic Genera 365

8. "'Ciestalts" ad "Distinctive Features'" 366

9. "Hidden Namres" and ""Proper Names'" 367

101. Living Things and Artefacts: Similar or Radically Different? 370

1 1, Conrclwsion

374

aP. THE SEWlCSOF GR-R

377

1113. Semntie Rules ie Grammar

I. Introduction

2. Semantic Rules: The Past Practiw

3. 'Wual Nouns" and Absolute Predictiveness

4. Evidence for Different ConceptualFzaEions

5. The Mystery of Scaks

6. Predictiveness and Different Languages

7. Different Cultures, Different Conceptualizatims

8. The Semantics of Gender

9. The Unconscious Character of Semantic Rules

10. Conclnasi~n

8, introduclion

2, Mcaniny and Scientific Kncawllcdgc

3, Meaning and Coilour Charts

4. Meaning and Psychological Reality

5. Colour Terms as Quotations

6. "Black" awd 'White'" 'Dark"' and "Lighlt"

7. Green, gwyrdd welsh), btuy (Hanunlliio)

8. Blue, rniebfaki (Polish), goSuboj and 8hQ (Russian), aoi

(Japanese), and f& flhsui)

9. ""Red" and "Yell~w"

10. Macro-white and Macro-Mack

11. Macro-red and Grue

12. Names of Mixed Coiours

1 3. caBrown"

84. Names of Specific (Locally Salient) Referents

15. Condusion: Chromatolrogy, Cognition, and Culture

14. A Semantit Basis far Grannmattsl Deseriptiau and Typailagy:

Tramsithity and Reflexives

1. Introduction

402

3. Typology and Semantics

4x017

4. Reflexive Constructions

409

5. Transitive Constructions

420

11. The Semantics of Nalhrral Kinds

1. Iaatroduction

2, Abstract Comcepts and Concrete Concepts

3. Scientific Knowledge versus Everyday Knowledge

4. An IPlwskration: Folk Mice versus Scientific Mice

5. The Evidenoe for the Folk Concept

6. General Discussion

7. Concllusion

6. Concliwsiosr

425

15. CompEurimg Grammaticral Categories across Lmguag;es:

The Semantics loif Elridemtialls

1. 111tr~du~tion

2. Kashaya

3. Quechua

4. Wlntu

5. Maricopa

6. Bulgarian and Maoedonian

7. Conclusion

8. A Summary of the FormuIae

12. Semantics and Ethuobiloliagy

11. Introdunction

2. Ethnobiological AnaByds: Tools and Methods

2. The Uniqueness d Grammatical and Semantic Systems

404

Anna Wierzbicka - Semantics. Primes and Universals (OUP, 1996).pdf

Plik z chomika:

Inne pliki z tego folderu:

Inne foldery tego chomika: